Significantly enhancing sustainability of cotton cultivation

This  research  report  analyses  the  impact  of  conversion  to  organic  cotton  farming  on  the  livelihoods  of  smallholders  in  the  Maikaal  bioRe  organic  cotton  project  in  Madhya  Pradesh,  central India. For that purpose, it compares farm profile data, material and financial input/output and soil parameters of organic and conventional farms over two cropping periods (2003 – 2005). The  results  show  that  organic  farms  achieve  cotton  yields  that  are  on  a  par  with  those  in  conventional  farms,  though  nutrient  inputs  are  considerably  lower.  With  less  production  costs  and a 20% organic price premium, gross margins from cotton are thus substantially higher than in  the  conventional  system. 

Even  if  the  crops  grown  in  rotation  with  cotton  are  sold  without an organic  price  premium,  profits  in  organic  farms  are  higher.  In  the  perception  of  most  organic  farmers, soil fertility significantly improved after conversion. However, the analysis of soil fertility parameters  in  soil  samples  from  organic  and  conventional  cotton  fields  has  shown  only  minor  differences in organic matter content and water retention. 

The  research  indicates  that  organic  cotton  farming  can  be  a  viable  option  to  improve  incomes  and reduce vulnerability of smallholders in the tropics. To use this potential it is important to find suitable approaches to enable marginalised farmers managing the hurdles of conversion to the organic farming system.

The guide aims to provide useful information and guidance to organic cotton farmers and to extension workers involved in organic cotton production on smallholder farms in the tropics.  There is no one best ‘package of practices’ for organic cotton farming, as the conditions differ from farm to farm with specific soils, climatic conditions, production facilities, availability of labour, and the individual objectives and skills of the farmer.

Therefore, this manual tries to impart an understanding  of  an  organic  farming  system and to point out the available management options. It is meant to provide a stong basis for the farmer’s decision making process and shall serve as a source of ideas for improvements. In any case, the suitability of the suggested methods in a specific setting needs to be explored on the respective farms and the methods potentially need to be adopted and further developed.

The manual can be used for training purposes in combination with the Organic Cotton Training Manual, which contains transparency slides, recommendations for interactive training elements, and material for group exercises.

The report ‘Picking Cotton - The choice between organic and genetically-engineered cotton for farmers in South India’ is a comparative analysis of the two methods of agriculture among cotton farmers in Andhra Pradesh.

The study illustrates how farmers growing GE cotton face high debts and high costs of cultivation, becoming more vulnerable to financial collapses. 

Cotton farmers in many developing countries are facing decreasing marginal returns due to stagnating yields and high input costs. Conversion to organic management could offer an alternative. This article shares results from a two year comparative study in central India covering 170 cotton fields, organic farms achieved cotton yields that were on par with those in conventional farms, whereby nutrient inputs and input costs per crop unit were reduced by half. Due to 10–20% lower total production costs and a 20% organic price premium, average gross margins from organic cotton fields were 30–40% higher than in the conventional system.

Although the crops grown in rotation with cotton were sold without premium, organic farms achieved 10–20% higher incomes from agriculture. In addition to these economic benefits, the organic farming system does not burden soil and groundwater with synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. However, in this study only minor differences were detected in soil fertility parameters of organic and conventional fields.

Altogether, the results suggest that conversion to organic farming can improve livelihoods of smallholders while protecting natural resources. Income loss due to reduced yields in initial years of transition, however, constitutes a major hurdle, especially for poorer farmers. It is thus important to support farmers in overcoming the obstacles of the conversion period.

Prices for organic cotton must reflect the true value of organic and cover real costs, as well as provide an incentive to farmers growing organic for all their hard work and efforts. It should have a distinct business model. This article discusses the various factors involved in arriving at a pricing model for organic cotton.

The study states that to maintain sustainability within the organic cotton system prices need to reflect cost of production, basic needs, development and maintaining a healthy rural economy and ecology and landscape.

This report presents the results, findings, and conclusions of the final evaluation of the C&A Foundation supported Multi Country Sustainable Cotton Programme implemented  by CottonConnect and their local implementing partners in China, India and Pakistan from May 2014 to March 2017.  This programme consisted of several components of which not all were present across all countries.

This evaluation was conducted using a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods, including quantitative analyses of datasets provided by CottonConnect, various Focus Group Discussions (FGD) conducted with programme component beneficiaries and implementing partner staff members and evaluation by the teams. 

The report also provides various recommendations for cotton stakeholders for creating a sustainable cotton ecosystem.

India is the largest producer, and accounts for 56 percent of the world’s organic cotton. However the irony is, only one percent of India’s cotton is organic. With agriculture and farming going the sustainable way, farmers are now trying to adopt indigenous methods to make organic farming feasible and profitable. The same goes for organic cotton as well.

In this regard, the C&A Foundation launched a sustainable cotton programme in 2014 with an aim to improve the livelihoods of small farmers and conserve the environment through sustainable cotton cultivation in Madhya Pradesh as it is the largest organic cotton producer with majorly smallholder farmers.

The programme was started in collaboration with four partners – Action for Social Advancement, Aga Khan Foundation, CottonConnect and WWF-India. It has invested over EUR 5 million to support over 25,000 smallholder cotton farmers in the state.

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The aim of this training manual is to facilitate training activities on organic cotton cultivation for smallholder farmers in the tropics. We hope it will form the basis for training activities by providing the following: 

• The essence of the involved subject matters in a compact and structured way; 

• Material for illustration; 

• Ideas for interactively addressing each topic in a training situation. 

The target group of the training manual is extension staff of organic cotton projects and rural development agencies

This report offers a snapshot of the water challenge faced by the cotton industry, with a couple of case studies that demonstrate sustainable solutions which can be implemented via CottonConnect’s farmer training programmes.

Through its farmer training programmes, working with around 130,000 smallholder farmers in India, China  and  Pakistan,  CottonConnect  has  proven that simple and basic techniques can help farmers reduce their water impact by as much as 30%.  By installing simple technologies such as drip irrigation systems, savings of up to 60% can  be achieved.

The aim of this review is to report changes in irrigated cotton water use from research projects and on-farm practice-change programs in Australia, in relation to both plant-based and irrigation engineering disciplines. At least 80% of the Australian cotton-growing area is irrigated using gravity surface-irrigation systems. Thie study found that, over 23 years, cotton crops utilise 6–7 ML/ha of irrigation water, depending on the amount of seasonal rain received.

Yield increases over the last decade can be attributed to plant-breeding advances, the adoption of genetically modified varieties, and improved crop management. Also, there has been increased use of irrigation scheduling tools and furrow-irrigation system optimisation evaluations. This has reduced in-field deep-drainage losses. Some farmers are changing to alternative systems such as centre pivots and lateral-move machines. These systems can achieve considerable labour and water savings, but have significantly higher energy costs associated with water pumping and machine operation. The optimisation of interactions between water, soils, labour, carbon emissions and energy efficiency requires more research and on-farm evaluations.

The study concludes that standardisation of water-use efficiency measures and improved water measurement techniques for surface irrigation are critical for efficient cotton water management. Further, site specific measurement of the techniques is critical for effective results. 

With increasing concerns over the need for freshwater for natural textile fibre cultivation and its priorities for human needs, many researchers and organizations are working on innovative solutions to sustainably use water for cultivation. This article provides details on some emerging technologies for efficient water use.

In this regard, computerized GPS based precision irrigation technologies for self propelled sprinklers and microirrigation systems will enable growers to apply water and agrochemicals more precisely and site specifically to match soil and plant status and needs as provided by wireless sensor networks. Agriculturalists will need to exercise flexibility in managing the rate, frequency, and duration of water supplies to successfully allocate limited water and other inputs to crops.

The most effective means to conserve water appears to be through carefully managed deficit irrigation strategies that are supported by advanced irrigation system and flexible, state of the art water delivery systems.  Nonagricultural water users will need to exercise patience as tools reflecting the paradigmatic shift are actualized. Both groups will need to cooperate and compromise as they practice more conservative approaches to freshwater consumption.

Within  the  ìFreshwater  &  Cotton  Projectî  WWF  has  commissioned  field  case  studies  of  se-lected, already ecologically improved or organic cotton projects in three major cotton producing countries, i.e. India, Turkey and Pakistan. These field case studies have identified key success factors  that  promote  the  conversion  from  conventional  to  certified  organic  or  ecologically  im-proved cotton production. The analysis of key factors is based on the assumption that the con-version to ecologically improved or organic cotton  does  in  any  case  substantially  contribute  to reverse  the  trends  towards  environmental  degradation  and  to  improve  livelihood  conditions  of the  farmers.

The conversion projects appraised by the field case studies achieve a set of changes in behav-ior at the level of project impacts. Thus, farmers raise their awareness on soil quality and biodi-versity, build up a certain knowledge base on environmental issues, increase the share of other organic crops grown in rotation to cotton, and can also raise income levels.

Evidence  from  the  field  case  studies  also  support  that  the  conversion  from  conventional  to  or-ganic  farming  has  positive  impacts  on  freshwater  resources  and  ecosystems:  Soil  structure,fertility  and  water  retention  capacity  is  enhanced,  the  plants  become  healthier  and  more  resis-tant,  irrigation  requirements  can  be  lowered,  eutrophication  of  water  ecosystems  can  be  prevented and biodiversity is increased.

CottonUP is a practical resource to inform and guide business leaders and sourcing teams on the issues, benefits and options for sourcing more sustainable cotton. The guide is part of Cotton 2040, a multi-stakeholder initiative to significantly increase the use of sustainable cotton internationally.

It provides case studies of businesses that have benefited from improved sustainable practices.

U.S. cotton faces a double barrier in terms of sustainability: 1) confronting the issue of the acceptance of cotton as a sustainable fiber and, 2) ensuring that U.S. cotton meets or exceeds all current sustainability standards.

U.S. cotton has been focused on sustainability for decades. According to Field to Market data, in the past 35 years U.S. cotton has increased land use efficiency by 31%, while reducing soil loss by 44%, water use by 82%, energy use by 38%, and greenhouse gas emissions by 30%. While U.S. cotton has been telling its sustainability story and highlighting its shrinking environmental imprint, more and more brands and retailers are demanding industry wide standards and third-party verification.U.S. cotton has been focused on sustainability for decades. According to Field to Market data, in the past 35 years U.S. cotton has increased land use efficiency by 31%, while reducing soil loss by 44%, water use by 82%, energy use by 38%, and greenhouse gas emissions by 30%. While U.S. cotton has been telling its sustainability story and highlighting its shrinking environmental imprint, more and more brands and retailers are demanding industry wide standards and third-party verification.

In 2019,  Dr. Yehia Elmogahzy and David Sasso worked as consultants with a Turkish mill to identify a new laydown strategy. This new strategy generated a substantial financial saving and improvements in overall yarn quality and processing performance.To address this growing concern, the U.S cotton industry created the U.S. Cotton Trust Protocol (Trust Protocol). The Trust Protocol sets new standards for sustainably grown cotton and continuous improvement in sustainability that will be measured and verified via a trusted third-party. The U.S. cotton industry currently spends more than $100 million per year in scientific research to continue developing the most advanced tools necessary to reduce its environmental footprint. These technologies help producers save money while also preserving and even improving the environment. The goal of the Trust Protocol is to help brands and retailers communicate this progress to its end consumers.

Cotton productivity in India is quite low as compared to world standards. The modern cotton production technology relies heavily on the use of fertilisers and on chemicals to control insect pests, diseases, weeds and growth regulators. Cotton cultivated on 5% cultivable land consumes 54% of total pesticides used in Indian agriculture, and in some pockets, the rates are higher than this, leaving immense ecological and human hazards as reported by the World Health Organisation. Use of chemicals at such scale causes a lot of hazards to man, i.e., environmental pollution, soil health, and agro-ecology and poor profitability in cotton farming. This has basically prompted the demand of organically cultivated, eco-friendly or ‘green’ cotton. 

This article discusses the scope of organic cotton cultivation, sustainable technology availability, strategies of cotton cultivation, and certifications available for organic cotton production in different countries.

Provides answers to some of the important questions about cotton and sustainability. Questions answered by this article are provided below:

• Why is cotton so important in today’s energy-conscious environment?

• Does cotton require a tremendous amount of pesticides to grow?

• Are there toxins in cotton products that could be harmful to one’s health?

• How much water does it take for cotton to grow up?

• How sustainable is sourcing organic cotton from foreign sources?

• What else  is cotton doing long term to rescue its environmental footprint?

The Water Footprint Network has been supporting C&A in developing a deeper understanding of water consumption and pollution arising from raw materials production and garment processing. This has been done through quantifying the water footprint of raw materials and processing, assessing the sustainability of these water footprints and recommending strategic response options which will reduce the water footprint and make it more sustainable.

Cotton accounts for 3% of global agricultural water. Approximately 70% of the world’s fresh water withdrawal is used by agriculture of which global cotton production accounts for 3%. This training material “A guide to reducing the water footprint of cotton cultivation in India” is curated to provide guidelines on growing cotton without much water.

Improving crops through breeding is a sustainable approach to increase yield and yield stability without intensifying the use of fertilisers and pesticides. Current advances in genomics and bioinformatics provide opportunities for accelerating crop improvement. The rise of third generation sequencing technologies is helping overcome challenges in plant genome assembly caused by polyploidy and frequent repetitive elements. As a result, high-quality crop reference genomes are increasingly available, benefitting downstream analyses such as variant calling and association mapping that identify breeding targets in the genome. Machine learning also helps identify genomic regions of agronomic value by facilitating functional annotation of genomes and enabling real-time high-throughput phenotyping of agronomic traits in the glasshouse and in the field. Furthermore, crop databases that integrate the growing volume of genotype and phenotype data provide a valuable resource for breeders and an opportunity for data mining approaches to uncover novel trait-associated candidate genes. As knowledge of crop genetics expands, genomic selection and genome editing hold promise for breeding diseases-resistant and stress-tolerant crops with high yields.

Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary area of science composed of biology, mathematics and computer science. Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to manage biological data that helps in decoding plant genomes. During the last two decades enormous data has been generated in biological science, firstly, with the onset of sequencing the genomes of model organisms and, secondly, rapid application of high throughput experimental techniques in laboratory research. Biological research that earlier used to start in laboratories, fields and plant clinics now starts at the computational level using computers (In-silico) for analysis of the data, experiment planning and hypothesis development. Bioinformatics develops algorithms and suitable data analysis tools to infer the information and make discoveries. Application of various bioinformatics tools in biological research enables storage, retrieval, analysis, annotation and visualization of results and promotes better understanding of the biological system in fullness. This will help in plant health care based disease diagnosis to improve the quality of Plant. Key words: bioinformatics, genomics, agriculture, stress.

The rapid developments in the field of genetic engineering have given a new impetus to biotechnology. This introduces the possibility of tailoring organisms for transferring genetic material (genes) from one organism to another. Impetus to the use of DNA probes in textile industry has come from importers to identify the products and overcome the labelling frauds such as to distinguish between wool and cashmere. Other areas where biotechnology is aiding are wet processing, treatment of effluents to remove colour and heavy metals, additive in aftercare products (detergents), production of dyes, surfactants, biosensors and genetic modification as well as production of biopolymers.

Sustainable intensification calls for agroecological and adaptive management of the agrifood system. Here, we focus on intercropping and how this agroecological practice can be used to increase the sustainability of crop production. Strip, mixed, and relay intercropping can be used to increase crop yields through resource partitioning and facilitation. In addition to achieving greater productivity, diversifying cropping systems through the use of strategic intercrops can increase yield stability, reduce pests, and improve soil health. Several intercropping systems are already implemented in industrialized agricultural landscapes, including mixed intercropping with perennial grasses and legumes as forage and relay intercropping with winter wheat and red clover.Because intercropping can provide numerous benefits, researchers should be clear about their objectives and use appropriate methods so as to not draw spurious conclusions when studying intercrops. In order to advance the practice, experiments that test the effects of intercropping should use standardized methodology, and researchers should report a set of common criteria to facilitate cross-study comparisons. Intercropping with two or more crops appears to be less common with annuals than perennials, which is likely due to differences in the mechanisms responsible for complementarity. One area where intercropping with annuals in industrialized agricultural landscapes has advanced is with cover crops, where private, public, and governmental organizations have harmonized efforts to increase the adoption of cover crop mixtures.

The workshop on Adoption of Technologies for Sustainable Farming Systems, hosted by The Netherlands Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries, was held in Wageningen on 4-7 July 2000. The workshop drew together participants from agriculture and environment ministries and research institutes from OECD Member countries, the Commission of European Communities,FAO and the International Federation of Agricultural Producers. The workshop offered an opportunity to share knowledge and experiences and,more specifically, to:−share country experiences and approaches in developing and encouraging the adoption of appropriate technologies for particular farming systems; in light of these experiences examine the efficacy of different policy approaches and instruments;−improve understanding of the sustainability of farming systems and technology,particularly in the context of future demand for food and other agricultural products;−show key trends in farming practices and structures, consumer tastes and agro-food industries and the effects they will have on sustainable farming;−look at the roles for governments and markets in stimulating adoption of appropriate technologies that can improve sustainability at the farm level; and−identify policy approaches for stimulating the adoption of technologies that can improve sustainability at the farm level.

The dialogues from the workshop and the conclusions are provided in this article. The focus of the workshop was the adoption of technologies that have the potential to contribute to sustainable farming systems. Technology adoption, however, is a broad concept. It is affected by the development, dissemination and application at the farm level of existing and new biological, chemical and mechanical techniques, all of which are encompassed in farm capital and other inputs; it is also affected by education, training, advice and information which form the basis of farmers' knowledge. It also includes technologies and practices in the whole agri-food sector that have an impact at the farm level. Finally, it should be borne in mind that most of these new technologies originate outside the farm sector.

One of the key policy conclusions of the workshop was that technologies for sustainable agriculture cover the whole spectrum of farming systems. All farming systems, from intensive conventional farming to organic farming, have the potential to be locally sustainable. Whether they are in practice depends on farmers adopting the appropriate technology and management practices in the specific ago-ecological environment within the right policy framework. There is no unique system that can be identified as sustainable, and no single path to sustainability.There can be a co-existence of more-intensive farming systems with more-extensive systems that overall provide environmental benefits, while meeting demands for food. However, it is important to recognise that most sustainable farming systems — even extensive systems —require a high level of farmer skills and management to operate.

Cotton is a wide spaced and initial slow growing crop and therefore offers scope for intercropping green manure. Intercropping and incorporation of green manure supply nitrogen and increase the nutrient use efficiency and yield of cotton. Incorporation of leguminous green manure crops has the beneficial effect on soil fertility also. Green manure intercrop serves as plant protectant too. To start with green manures effect on the associate cotton growth and yield are reviewed hereunder followed by their effect on soil fertility, pest and weed control on the principle crop.

Suitable management practices like intercropping and judicious combination of organic and inorganic manures are considered as yield improvement technologies and can avoid environmental pollution. However, which intercrop is suitable for the study area and what combination of nutrients will perform better needs to be investigated. With this background and to test-verify the same, field experiments were conducted on cotton with split plot design to evaluate cotton based intercropping system along with nutrient management practices for enhancing the cotton productivity. Five intercropping systems viz., sole cotton, cotton + onion, cotton + blackgram, cotton + green gram and cotton + lucerne were included in the main plot. Benefit: cost (BC) ratios were also higher in the same treatment. It could be concluded from these results that the cotton productivity is higher under the sole crop of cotton, however, the cotton equivalent yield is significantly higher with intercropping and these treatments proved that soil fertility status can be sustained with integrated plant nutrient management practices and intercropping systems.

A 2-year field investigation was carried out during 2003–2004 to determine the effectiveness of intercropping single and double rows of sorghum, soybean and sesame in a cotton crop on the suppression of purple nutsedge (Cyperus rotundus L.). Results revealed that all three intercrops were effective in inhibiting purple nutsedge density (70–96%) and dry matter production (71–97%) during both years of experimentation. Control in the second year was more effective than in the first year. The seed cotton yield was also depressed by the intercrops but its suppression (8–23%) was far less severe than that of purple nutsedge and its loss was compensated by greater total economic returns. Intercropping of sorghum and sesame produced greater than 20% net benefits (up to 60%) in comparison with the control (cotton alone). Soybean intercropping produced comparable net benefits (95–103%). Sesame two rows intercrop treatment appeared the most profitable with net benefit of 51–59% with good purple nutsedge control (73–92% density suppression, 77–95% dry weight suppression) during both years of experimentation.

In cooler regions, higher temperatures could benefit cotton yields by providing a longer growing season. But where temperatures already reach the upper limits of what cotton can withstand, cotton production could suffer. Even though cotton can grow in hot climates, its ability to survive rising temperatures depends on water availability and extreme weather patterns.

This article provides insights on how the cotton industry is turning to innovation to help it weather challenging growing conditions ahead. Some of the innovations include developing heat tolerant, pest and drought resistant cotton, breeding cotton or more extensive root systems, use of transgenic technology and more.

The study  aims  at  analyzing  the  productivity  and  resource  use  of  cotton-wheat  relay  intercropping  systems.  Wheat  is  sown  in  strips  with  interspersed  bare  soil  in  October  and  harvested  in  June  of  the  next  year,  while  cotton  is  sown  in  the  interspersed  space  in  the  wheat  crop  in  April  and  harvested  before the next wheat sowing in October.

Crop growth, phenology, productivity, quality, resource use efficiencies and profitability of mono- and intercrops were studied at the plant, field and system levels. The  measurements  were  carried  out  in  field  experiments  during  three  consecutive  years  with  monocultures of wheat and cotton and four intercropping designs differing in strip and path width as well  as  number of rows per strip. 

All  intercropping  systems  showed  an  advantage  in  land  productivity  compared  to  growing monocrops. The fiber quality of cotton was not affected by intercropping.  Further, resources such as light and nutrient requirements were also similar or lesser in intercropping compared to monocrops.

Cotton growing remains an essential segment of the agriculture industry. With people across various sectors including fashion industries relying on farmers to provide good quality cotton grown on smart, environmentally considerate farms, significant measures need to be taken for sustainable cotton production.

This article provides tips for cotton farmers for efficient cotton production and attain increased profits from yield improvement. Key tips include picking the right cotton variety, use of sustainable chemicals and pesticides, proper land preparation before cultivation and more.

Precision farming is an old traditional farming in the modern way, which involves optimizing agricultural production by improving the precision of the existing agronomic management activities by implementing them at a subfield scale. Such an experimental implementation has been done in Karnataka as the project on precision farming in selected field crops. Hence, to analyze the economic benefits of precision farming in comparison with conventional farming the present study was undertaken.

The study was conducted at Raichur district, Karnataka. The data were collected by personal interview method by the pretested schedule. The study results indicated that though the cost of cultivation was marginally higher (1.47 %)  in  precision  farming  than  non-precision  farming,  the  yield  obtained  under  management  practices  of precision farming (38.03 q/ha) were much higher than (26.48 q/ha) conventional farming situations. Hence there was a net gain of ` 35,898.82/ha under the adoption of precision farming. Returns per rupee spent was 2.03. Considering its benefits there is a need to encourage and popularize this technology with the support of line departments, SAU’s and other extension agencies.

Precision agriculture is a crop and livestock production management system that uses a global positioning system (GPS) to monitor equipment field position to collect information and apply inputs as required at each location. This study investigates factors affecting the number of specific types of precision agriculture technologies adopted by cotton farmers. Particular attention is given to the influence of spatial yield variability on the number of precision farming technologies adopted, using a Count data estimation procedure and farm-level data.

Results indicate that farmers with more within-field yield variability adopted a larger number of precision agriculture technologies.

Climate  Smart  Agriculture  (CSA)  was  introduced  by  the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) in 2010, as an innovative cleaner production alternative to  conventional  farming  that  aimed  at  increasing  the  efficiency  of  natural  resources,  resilience,and  productivity  of  agricultural  production  system,  while  reducing  greenhouse  gas  emissions.The adverse effects of climate change on cotton production at the farm and regional level can be minimized by using CSA practices and technologies. The present study investigated the financial performance and explored the impact of CSA through sustainable water use management on cotton production  in  Lower  Bari  Doab  Canal  (LBDC)  irrigation  system  of  Punjab,  Pakistan by using Cobb-Douglas production function.

Results revealed that uniform germination, higher yield and financial returns, the concentration of inputs and increase in resource use efficiency are the main advantages of CSA. The econometric analysis showed that implementation of CSA practices and technologies as judicious use of water and fertilizer,groundwater quality, access to extension services, and appropriate method and time of picking have a significant impact on the gross value of cotton product (GVP). The findings of the study would be helpful for policy makers to formulate policies that can minimize farmer ’s financial burden to adopt CSA technologies and implement for scaling out in Punjab and beyond.